Should Animals Be Used for Research Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Should Animals Be Used for Research - Term Paper Example Scientific breakthrough has created a healthier society and longer life expectancy. Scientists have traveled a long way of research to meet this end. Yet, the price being paid is so high because the lives of man’s friend such as dogs, cats, rabbits, monkeys, and others are being sacrificed in various animal testing and research for medical advancement. In a simpler term, we are facing a confusing thought of, â€Å"Is animal research, a ‘Blessing’ or a ‘Curse’?† Evidently, medical scientists consider animal research as a blessing. They have attained numerous achievements on developing medicines, antibiotics, medical treatments, operational procedures and even organ transplants. Dreadful diseases such as the epidemic of influenza, typhus, infantile paralysis, poliomyelitis, small pox, typhoid fever, diphtheria, measles, malaria, pneumonia and others are being controlled and treated. All of these things would not become possible without the help of animal testing and research. Let us put it this way. Let us say, that you are in a critical condition. Your life is in danger due to an illness or an epidemic. I am pretty sure that you don’t want to die, especially at this moment that your are still young. What if the only way to save your life is to sacrifice a life of a rat, or a rabbit, or maybe a monkey, for research in order to test and produce the medical treatment intended for you? If that’s the only way you can be saved from an excruciating disease and even death, would you reject the idea of animal research and prefer to die instead, just because you are against the animal research technology? Is it really worth to die than put the animal in laboratory research and suffer pain while being experimented? Or is it really worth it that animals should be sacrificed in order to save human lives? So the question is simply as, Who must be sacrificed, an animal life, or a human life? This reminds me of a situation in ancient times, during the bib le times or before Christ era. According to the bible, as attested by historical facts, people of ancient times are used to sacrifice lives of animals, particularly sheep and goats, in order to gain Gad’s favor and righteous standing before Him. So, would it be possible that even God himself consider animals research as a blessing for humankind? This is such an emotional issue for individuals who are against animals research. Probably, in their own points of view, this situation is impossible to overcome because evidently they consider animals research as a curse. Since they oppose the idea of using animals in laboratory experiments for developing possible cures to common rampant diseases due to ethical issues, would it be easy for them to stood by this principle and tell directly to the doctor that do not use the animals for laboratory test for my health benefits or for treatment of my illness? In the stance of a pro-medical technologies using animal testing, they may view t hose in the opposing side as short-minded persons or extremely fanatic and traditional. If you will watch the 3-minute video clip of the PETA organization, People for Ethical treatment of Animals, regarding their anti-animal testing stand in the you tube, with a video URL link of http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0QRBcHIIsXc you might find them quite reasonable in their points of view. You might find this video as heart-stirring in behalf of the lives of animals being sacrificed in animal laboratory research. You will surely understand the ethical issues that they want to point out and willing to fight for. It is true, like humans, how animals

Luftwaffe's Failure to Win the Battle of Britain Essay

Luftwaffe's Failure to Win the Battle of Britain - Essay Example Britain planned for German invasion called operation sea lion and this plan was to establish German air superiority over southern England and the English Channel, and aimed at attacking RAF and anything attached to it (Turner, 2010, p.38) resulting to the first world’s strategic bombing campaign and battle in the air, the battle of Britain. During the opening phase of the battle of Britain, the German planned to gain air superiority and this resulted to an attack by the Luftwaffe on the RAF fighter airfields named Eagle Day (Wyatt, 1940). Luftwaffe decided to attack British domestic shipping in the English Channel to draw out the RAF and suppress their fighting strength and even though the Germans made daily strikes against ship convoys, after sometime, Luftwaffe lost about 248 fighters and bombers to RAF’s 148 fighters lost and this encouraged RAF to fight on and win the battle (Wyatt, 1940). This essay presents an account for the for the Luftwaffe’s failure to win the battle of Britain. Â   About twenty years ago, Europe lay at Hitler’s feet and Britain faced its darkest hour as it was outnumbered and friendless as the German force continued its advance and this made them to see their defeat as being inevitable and their victory became legendary. RAF focused on shooting down all German planes from northern as well as eastern France (Clayton & Craig, 2011, p.18). RAF had the high-performance Hawker Hurricane and Super marine Spitfire fighters whereas the Luftwaffe's principal fighter planes were the Messerschmitt Bf109, the Messerschmitt Bf110, and numerous bombers Wyatt, 1940). The Luftwaffe failed to win the battle because they failed to destroy the air defences of Britain to enable them launch an invasion- Operation Sea Lion, and they as well failed to bomb Britain into surrender since RAF had a well-established and effective spitfire and hurricanes controlled by advanced radar system and this prevented Luftwaffe from emerging v ictorious. Luftwaffe focused on using air campaign to threaten Britain and this campaign was aimed weakening RAF in order to make Britain vulnerable to attack from the air, and to fulfil the basic precondition of invasion by establishing air superiority over the invasion of the South East England (Bungay, 2010, p.27). At the beginning of the battle, Luftwaffe focused on attacking shipping in the English Channel as well as coastal towns but later on, Goering changed his focus to completely destroy RAF, by attacking airfields and their radar bases. When the battle commenced RAF had less than 500 aircraft that were not capable of reaching German territory and therefore, the British preparations was based on avoiding defeat and conquest (Overy,2010, p.6-7). Many factors can explain the Luftwaffe’s failure to win the battle of Britain and many scholars have contributed largely in providing an explanation of the air battle and how the air campaign was developed. Firstly, German pla nes were constructed and designed for short distance tactical tricks and local air superiority, they lacked heavy bombers (Wyatt, 1940), and they lacked quality fighters with the fuel endurance to act as escorts to the bombers they had. Germany lacked long-range bombers and was not able to field its first strategic bomber during the battle (Correll, 2008). On the contrary, Britain had a much more experienced and better equipped fighting force and generally, RAF was strong and massively outnumbered German forces. Accordingly, more and better British fighters were available and ready to help RAF during the battle

Reliability of Speaking Proficiency Tests

Reliability of Speaking Proficiency Tests Introduction Testing, as a part of English teaching, is a very important procedure, not just because it can be a valuable source of information about the effectiveness of learning and teaching but also because it can improve teaching, and arouse the students motivation to learn. Testing oral proficiency has become one of the most important issues in language testing since the role of speaking ability has become more central in language teaching with the advent of communicative language teaching (Nakamura, 1993). However, assessing speaking is challenging (Luoma, 2004). Validity and reliability, as fundamental concerns and essential measurement qualities of the speaking test (Bachman, 1990; Bachman Palmer, 1996; Alderson et al, 1995), have aroused widespread attention. The validation of the speaking test is an important area of research in language testing. Test of oral proficiency just started in China 15 years ago, and there are a few very dominant tests. An increasing number of Chinese linguists are putting their attention and efforts on analysis of their validity and reliability. Institutions began to introduce speaking tests into English exams in recent years with the widespread promotion of communicative language teaching (CLT). Publications that deal with speaking tests within institutions provide some qualitative assessments (Cai, 2002). But there is relatively little research literature relating to the reliability and validity of such measures within a university context. (Wen, 2001). The College English Department at Dalian Nationalities University (DLNU) has been selected as one of thirty-one institutions of the College English Reform Demonstration Project in the Peoples republic of China. In College English (CE) course of DLNU, the speaking test is one of the four subtests of the final examination of English assessment. The examination uses two different formats. One is a semi-direct speaking test, in which examinees talk to microphones connected to computers, and have their speeches recorded for the teachers to rate afterwards. The other is a face-to-face interview. This research in this paper aims to ascertain the degree of the reliability and validity of the speaking tests. By analyzing the results of the research, teachers will become more aware of the validity and reliability of oral assessments, including how to improve the reliability and validity of speaking tests. I, as a language teacher, will gain insight into the operation of language proficiency te st, In order to better degree of reliability and validity of a particular test, I will also take other qualities of test usefulness into account when designing the language proficiency test., such as practicality and authenticity. Research questions: This study mainly addresses the questions of validity and reliability of the speaking test administered at DLNU. They are comprehensive concepts that involve analysis of test tasks, administration, rating criteria, examinee and testers attitudes towards the test, the effect of the test on teaching and teacher or learner attitudes towards learning the tests (Luoma, 2004). Therefore, the purpose of this study is to answer the following research questions: 1. Is the speaking test administered at DLNU a valid and reliable test? This question can involve the following two sub-questions: 1) To what extent is the speaking test administered at DLNU reliable? 2) To what extent is the speaking test administered at DLNU valid? 2. In what aspects and to what extent may the validity and reliability of the speaking test administered at DLNU be improved? Literature Review This chapter presents a theoretical framework of speaking construct, ways of testing speaking, marking of speaking test and the reliability and validity of speaking test, also introduces the situation of speaking test in China. Analyzing Speaking And Speaking Test The Nature Of Speaking Speaking, as a social and situation-based activity, is an integral part of peoples daily lives (Luoma, 2004). Testing second language speaking is often claimed to be a much more difficult undertaking than testing other second language abilities, capacities or competencies, skills ¼Ã‹â€ Underhill, 1987). Assessment is difficult not only because speaking is fleeting, temporal and ephemeral, but also because of the comprehensibility of pronunciation, the special nature of spoken grammar and spoken vocabulary, as well as the interactive and social features of speaking (Luoma, 2004), because of the â€Å"unpredictability and dynamic nature† of language itself (Brown, 2003). To have a clear understanding of what it means to be able to speak a language, we must understand that the nature and characteristics of the spoken language differ from those of the written form (Luoma, 2004; McCarthy OKeefe, 2004; Bygate, 2001) in its grammar, syntax, lexis and discourse patterns due to the nature of spoken language. Spoken English involves reduced grammatical elements arranged into formulaic chunk expressions or utterances with less complex sentences than written texts. Spoken English breaks the standard word order because the omitted information can be restored from the instantaneous context (McCarthy OKeefe, 2004; Luoma, 2004; Bygate, 2001; Fulcher, 2003). Spoken English contains frequent use of the vernacular, interrogatives, tails, adjacency pairs, fillers and question tags which have been interpreted as dialogue facilitators (Luoma, 2004; Carter McCarthy, 1995). The speech also contains a fair number of slips and errors such as mispronounced words, mixed sounds, and wrong words due to inattention, which is often pardoned and allowed by native speakers (Luoma, 2004). Conversations are also negotiable, unpredictable, and susceptible to social and situational context in which the talks happen (Luoma, 2004). The Importance Of Speaking Test Testing oral proficiency has become one of the most important issues in language testing since the role of speaking ability has become more central in language teaching with the advent of CLA (Nakamura, 1993). Of the four language skills (listening, speaking, reading, writing), listening and reading occur in the receptive mode, while speaking and writing exist in the productive mode. Understanding and absorption of received information are foundational while expression and use of acquired information demonstrate an improvement and a more advanced test of knowledge. A lot of interests now in oral testing is partly because second language teaching is more than ever directed towards the speaking and listening skills ¼Ã‹â€ Underhill, 1987). Language teachers are engaged in â€Å"teaching a language through speaking† (Hughes, 2002:7). On one hand, spoken language is the focus of classroom activity. There are often other aims which the teacher might have: for instance, helping the student gain awareness of practice in some aspect of linguistic knowledge (ibid). On the other hand, speaking test, as a device for assessing the learners language proficiency also functions to motivate students and reinforce their learning of language. This represents what Bachman (1991) has called an â€Å"interface† between second language acquisition (SLA) and language testing research. However, assessing speaking is challenging, â€Å"because there are many factors that influence our impression of how well someone can speak a language† (Luoma, 2004:1) as well as unpredictable or impromptu nature of the speaking interaction. The testing of speaking is difficult due to practical obstacles and theoretical challenges. Much attention has been given to how to perfect the assessment system of oral English and how to improve its validity and reliability. The communicative nature of the testing environment also remains to be considered (Hughes, 2002). The Construct Of Speaking Introduction To Communicative Language Ability (CLA) A clear and explicit definition of language ability is essential to language test development and use (Bachman,1990). The theory on which a language test is based determines which kind of language ability the test can measure, This type of validity is called construct validity. According to Bachman (1990:84), CLA can be described as â€Å"consisting of both knowledge or competence and the capacity for implementing or executing that competence in appropriate, contextualized communicative language use†. CLA includes three components: language competence, strategic competence and pyschophysiological mechanisms. The following framework (figure 2.1) shows components of communicative language ability in communicative language use (Bachman,1990:85). Knowledge Structures Language Competence Knowledge of the world Knowledge Of Language Strategic Competence Psychophysiological Mechanisms Context Of Situation This framework has been widely accepted in the field of language testing. Bachman (1990:84) proposes that â€Å"language competence† essentially refers to a set of specific knowledge components that are utilized in communication via language. It comprises organizational and pragmatic competence. Two areas of organizational knowledge that Bachman (1990) distinguishes are grammatical knowledge and textual knowledge. Grammatical knowledge comprises vocabulary, syntax, phonology and graphology, and textual knowledge, comprises cohesion and rhetorical or conversational organization. Pragmatic competence shows how utterances or sentences and texts are related to the communicative goals of language users and to the features of the langue-use setting. It includes illocutionary acts ¼Ã…’or language functions, and sociolinguistic competence, or the knowledge of the sociolinguistic conventions that govern appropriate language use in a particular culture and in varying situations in t hat culture (Bachman, 1987). Strategic competence refers to mastery of verbal and nonverbal strategies in facilitating communication and implementing the components of language competence. Strategic competence is demonstrated in contextualized communicative language use, such as socialcultural knowledge, real-world knowledge and mapping this onto the maximally efficient use of existing language abilities. Psychophysiological competence refers to the visual and auditory skill used to gain access to the information in the administrators instructions. Among other things, psychophysiological competence includes things like sound and light. Fulchers Construct Definition To know what to assess in a speaking test is a prime concern. Fulcher (1997b) points out that the construct of speaking proficiency is incomplete. Nevertheless, there have been various attempts to reflect the underlying construct of speaking ability and to develop theoretical frameworks for defining the speaking construct. Fulchers framework (figure 2.2) (Fulcher, 2003: 48) describes the speaking construct. As Fulcher (2003) points out that there are many factors that could be included in the definition of the construct: Phonology: the speaker must be able to articulate the words, have an understanding of the phonetic structure of the language at the level of the individual word, have an understanding of intonation, and create the physical sounds that carry meaning. Fluency and accuracy: these concepts are associated with automaticity of performance and the impact on the ability of the listener to understand. Accuracy refers to the correct use of grammatical rules, structure and vocabulary in speech. Fluency has to do with the ‘normal speed of delivery to mobilise ones language knowledge in the service of communication at relatively normal speed. The quality of speech needs to be judged in terms of the gravity of the errors made or the distance from the target forms or sounds. Strategic competence: this is generally thought to refer to an ability to achieve ones communicative purpose through the deployment of a range of coping strategies. Strategic competence includes both achievement strategies and avoidance strategies. Achievement strategies contain overgeneralization/morphological creativity. Learners transfer knowledge of the language system onto lexical items that they do not know, for example, saying â€Å"buyed† instead of â€Å"bought†, Speakers also learn approximation: learners replace an unknown word with one that is more general or they use exemplification, paraphrasing (use a synonym for the word needed), word coinage (invent a new word for an unknown word), restructuring (use different words to communicate the same message), cooperative strategies (ask for help from the listener) , code switching (take a word or phrase from the common language with the listener in order to be understood) and non-linguistic strategies (use gestur es or mime, or point to objects in the surroundings to help to communicate). Avoidance or reduction strategies consist of formal avoidance (avoiding using part of the language system) and functional avoidance (avoiding topical conversation). Strategic competence includes selecting communicative goals and planning and structuring oral production so as to fulfill them. Textual knowledge: competent oral interaction involves some knowledge of how to manage and structure discourse, for example, through appropriate turn-taking, opening and closing strategies, maintaining coherence in ones contributions and employing appropriate interactional routines such as adjacency pairs. Pragmatic and sociolinguistic knowledge: effective communication requires appropriateness and the knowledge of the rules of speaking. A range of speech acts, politeness and indirectness can be used to avoid causing offence. Ways Of Testing Speaking Clark (1979) puts forward a theoretical basis to discriminate three types of speaking tests: direct, semi-direct and indirect tests. Indirect tests belong to â€Å"procommunicative† era in language testing, in which the test takers are not actually required to speak. It has been regarded as having the least validity and reliability, while the other two formats are more widely used (OLoughlin, 2001). In this section, the characteristics, advantages and disadvantages of the direct and semi-direct test are presented, The Oral Proficiency Interview Format One of the earliest and most popular direct speaking test formats, and one that continues to exert a strong influence, is the oral proficiency interview (OPI) –developed originally by the FSI (Foreign Service Institute) in the United States in the 1950s and later adopted by other government agencies. It is conducted with individual test-taker by a trained interviewer, who assesses the candidate using a global band scale (OLoughlin, 2001). It typically begins with a warm-up discussion of a few easy questions, such as getting to know each other or talking about the days events. Then the main interaction contains the pre-planned tasks, such as describing or comparing pictures, narrating from a picture series, talking about a pre-announced or examiner-selected topic, or possibly a role-play task or a reverse interview where the examinee asks question of the interviewer (Luoma. 2004). An important example of this type of test is the speaking component of the International English L anguage Testing System (IELTS), which is adopted in 105 different countries around the world each year. The Advantage Of An Interview Format The oral interview was recognized as the most commonly used speaking test format. Fulcher (2003) suggests that it is partly because the questions used can be standardized, making comparison between test takers easier than when other task types are used. Using this method, the instructor can get a sense of the oral communicative competence of students and can overcome weakness of written exams, because the interview, unlike written exams, â€Å"is flexible in that the questions can be adapted to each examinees performance, and thus the testers have more controls over what happens in the interaction† (Luoma, 2004:35). It is also relatively easy to train raters and obtain high inter-rater reliability (Fulcher, 2003). The Disadvantage Of An Interview Format However, concern and skepticism exist about whether it is possible to test other competencies or knowledge because of the nature of the discourse that the interview produces (van Lier, 1989). a. Issue of time For the instructor, time management can be quite an issue. For instance, using a two-hour period for exams for 20 students means each student is allowed only six minutes for testing. This includes the time needed to enter the room and adjust to the setting. With such a time limit the student and instructor can hardly have any kind of normal real-world conversation. b. Issue of asymmetrical relationship The asymmetrical relationship between examiners and candidates elicits a form of inauthentic and limited socio-cultural contexts (van Lier, 1989; Savignon, 1985; Yoffe, 1997). Yoffe (1997) commented on ACTFL (American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages) OPI that the tester and the test-taker are â€Å"clearly not in equal positions† (Yofee, 1997). The asymmetry is not specific to the OPI but is inherent in the notion of an interview as an exchange wherein one person solicits information in order to arrive at a decision while the interlocutor produces what he or she perceives as most valued. The interviewee is, in most cases, acutely aware of the ramifications of the OPI rating and is, consequently, under a great deal of stress. Van Lier (1989) also challenges the validity of OPI in terms of the asymmetry between them because â€Å"the candidate speaks as to a superior and is unwilling to take the initiative† (van Lier, 1989). Under the unequal relationship, the speech discourse, such as turn –taking, topic nomination and development, and repair strategies are all substantially different from normal conversational exchanges (see van Lier 1989). c. Issue of interviewer variation Given the fact that the interviewer has considerable power over the examinee in an interview, concerns have been aroused about the effect of the interlocutor (examiner) on the candidates oral performance. Different interviewers vary in their approaches and attitudes toward the interview. Brown (2003) warns the danger of such variation to fairness. OSullivan (2000) conducts an empirical study that indicated learners perform better when interviewed by a woman, regardless of the sex of the learner. Underhill (1987:31) expresses his concern on the unscripted â€Å"flexibility†¦ means that there will be a considerable divergence between what different learners say, which makes a test more difficult to assess with consistency and reliability.† Testing Speaking In Pairs There has been a shift toward a paired speakers format: two assessors examine two candidates at a time. One assessor interacts with the two candidates and rates them on a global scale, while the other does not take part in the interaction and just assessesusing an analytic scale. The paired oral test has been used as part of large-scale, international, standardized oral proficiency tests since the late 1980s (Ildikà ³, 2001). Key English Test (KET), Preliminary English Test (PET), First Certificate in English (FCE) and Certificate in Advanced English (CAE) make use of the paired format. In a typical test, the interaction begins with a warm-up, in which the examinees introduce themselves to the interlocutor, followed by two pair interaction task. The talk may involves comparing two photographs by each candidate at first, such as in Cambridge First Certificate (Luoma, 2004), then a two-way collaborative task between the two candidates based on more photographs, artwork or computer gra phics, and ends up with a three-way discussion with the two examinees and the interlocutor about a general theme that is related to the earlier discussion. The advantages of the paired interview format Many researchers claim that the paired format is preferable to OPI. The reasons are: a. The changed role of the interviewer frees up the instructors in order to pay closer attention to the production of each candidate than if they are participants themselves (Luoma, 2004). b. The reduced asymmetry allows more varied interaction patterns, which elicits a broader sample of discourse and increased turn-takings than were possible in the highly asymmetrical traditional interview (Taylor, 2000). c. The task type based on pair-work will generate a positive washback effect on classroom teaching and learning (Ildiko, 2001). In the case of the instructor following Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) methodology, where pair work may take up a significant portion of a class, it would be appropriate to incorporate similar activities in the exam. In that way the exam itself is much better integrated into the fabric of the course. Students can be tested for performance related to activities done in class. There may also be benefits in regards to student motivation. If students are aware that they will be tested on activities similar to the ones done in class, they may have more incentive to be attentive and use class time effectively. The disadvantages of the paired interview format There are, however, also concerns voiced regarding the paired format. a. Mismatches between peer interactants The most frequently raised criticisms against the paired speaking test relate to various forms of mismatches between peer interactants (Fulcher, 2003). Ildiko (2001) points out that when a candidate has to work with an incomprehensible or uncomprehending peer partner, it may negatively influence the candidates performance. As a consequence, in such cases it is quite impossible to make a valid assessment of candidates abilities. b. Lack of familiarity between peer interactants The extent to which this testing format actually reduces the level of anxiety of test-takers compared to other test formats remains doubtful (Fulcher, 2003). OSullivan (2002) suggests that the spontaneous support offered by a friend positively reduces anxiety and task performance under experimental conditions. However, the chances are quite high that the examinee will meet with strangers as his or her peer interactant. It is hard to imagine how these strangers can carry out some naturally flowing conversations. Estrangement, misinterpretation and even breakdown may occur during their talk. c. Lack of control of the discussion Problems are generated if the examiner loses control of the oral task (Luoma, 2004). When the instructions and task materials are not clear enough to facilitate the discussion, the examinees conversation may go astray. Luoma (2004) points out that testers often feel uncertain about what amount of responsibility that they should give to the examinees. Furthermore, examinees do not know what kind of performance will earn them good results without the elicitation of the examiner. When one of the examinees has said too little, the examiner ought to monitor and jump in to give help when necessary. Semi-Direct Speaking Tests The term â€Å"semi-direct† is employed by Clark (1979:36) to describe those tests that are characterized â€Å"by means of tape recordings, printed test booklets, or other ‘non-human elicitation procedures, rather than through face-to-face conversation with a live interlocutor.† Appearing during 1970s, and being an innovative adaptation of the traditional OPI, the semi-direct method normally follows the general structure of the OPI and makes an audio-recording of the test takers performance which is later rated by one or more trained assessors (Malone, 2000). Examples of the semi-direct type used in the U.S.A. are the simulated oral proficiency interviews (SOPI) and the Test of Spoken English 2000 (TSE) (Ferguson, 2009). Examples in U.K. include the Test in English for Education Purpose (TEEP) and the Oxford-ARELS Examinations (OLoughlin, 2001). Another mode of delivery is testing by telephone as in the PhonePass test (the test mainly consists of reading sentenc es aloud or repeating sentences), or even video-conferencing (Ferguson, 2009). The Advantages Of The Semi-Direct Test Type First, the semi-direct test is more cost efficient than direct tests, because many candidates can be tested simultaneously in large laboratories and administered by any teacher, language lab technician or aide in a language laboratory where the candidate hears taped questions and has their responses recorded (Malone, 2000). Second, the mode of testing is quite flexible. It provides a practical solution in situations where it is not possible to deliver a direct test (OLoughlin, 2001), and it can be adapted to the desired level of examinee proficiency and to specific examinee age groups, backgrounds, and professions (Malone, 2000). Third, semi-direct testing represents an attempt to standardize the assessment of speaking while retaining the communicative basis of the OPI (Shohamy, 1994). It offers the same quality of interview to all examinees, and all examinees respond to the same questions so as to remove the effect that the human interlocutor will have on the candidate (Malone, 2000). The uniformity of the elicitation procedure greatly increases the reliability of the test. Some empirical studies (Stansfield, 1991) show high correlations (0. 89- 0. 95) between the direct and semi-direct tests, indicating the two formats can measure the same language abilities and the SOPI can be the equivalent and surrogate of the OPI. However, there are also disadvantages. The Disadvantages Of The Semi-Direct Test Type First, the speaking task in semi-direct oral test is less realistic and more artificial than OPI (Clark, 1979; Underhill, 1987). Examinees use artificial language to â€Å"respond to tape-recorded questions situations the examinee is not likely to encounter in a real-life setting† (Clark, 1979:38). They may feel stressful while speaking to a microphone rather than to another person, especially if they are not accustomed to the laboratory setting (OLoughlin, 2001). Second, the communicative strategy and speech discourse elicited in these semi-direct SOPIs is quite different from that found in typical face-face interaction – being more formal, less conversation-like (Shohamy, 1994). Candidates tend to use written language in tape-mediated test, more of a report or narration; while, they focus more on interaction and on delivery of meanings in OPI. Third, there are often technical problems that can result in poor quality recordings or even no recording in the SOPI format (Underhill, 1987). In conclusion, one cannot assume any equivalence between a face-to face test and a semi-direct test (Shohamy, 1994). It may be that they are measuring different things, different constructs, so the mode of test delivery should be adopted on the basis of test purpose, accuracy requirement, practicability, and impartiality (Shohamy, 1994). Stansfield (1991) proposes the OPI is more applicable to the placement test and evaluation test of the curriculum, while SOPI is more appropriate for large-scale test with requirement of high reliability. Marking Of Speaking Test Marking and scoring is a challenge in assessing second language oral proficiency.. Since only a few elements of the speaking skill can be scored objectively, human judgments play major roles in assessment. How to establish the valid, reliable, effective marking criteria scales and high quality scoring instruments have always been central to the performance testing of speaking (Luoma, 2004). It is important to have clear, explicit criteria to describe the performance, as it is important for raters to understand and apply these criteria, making it possible to score them consistently and reliably. For these reasons, rating and rating scales have been a central focus of research in the testing of speaking (Ferguson, 2009). Definition Of Rating Scales A rating scale, also referred to as a â€Å"scoring rubric† or â€Å"proficiency scale† is defined by Davies et al as following (see Fulcher, 2003):  ·consisting of a series of band or levels to which descriptions are attached  ·providing an operational definition of the constructs to be measured in the test  ·requiring training for its effective operation Holistic And Analytic Rating Scales There are different types of rating scales used for scoring speech samples. One of the traditional and commonly used distinctions is between holistic and analytic rating scales. Holistic rating scales also are referred to as global rating. With these scales, the rater attempts to match the speech sample with a particular band whose descriptors specify a range of defining characteristics of speech at that level. A single score is given to each speech sample either impressionistically or by being guided by a rating scale to encapsulate all the features of the sample (Bachman Palmer, 1996). Analytic rating scales: They consist of separate scales for different aspects of speaking ability (e.g. grammar / vocabulary; pronunciation, fluency, interactional management, etc). A score is given for each aspect (or dimension), and the resulting scores may be combined in a variety of ways to produce a composite single overall score. They include detailed guidance to raters, and rich information that they provide on specific strengths and weakness in examinee performance (Fulcher, 2003). Analytic scales are particularly useful for diagnostic purposes and for providing a profile of competence in the different aspects of speaking ability (Ferguson, 2009). The type of scale that is selected for a particular test of speaking will depend upon the purpose of the test Validity And Reliability Of Speaking Test Bachman And Palmers Theories On Test Usefulness The primary purpose of a language test is to provide a measure that can be interpreted as an indicator of an individuals language ability (Bachman, 1990; Bachman and Palmer, 1996). Bachman and Palmer (1996) propose that test usefulness including six test qualities—reliability, construct validity, authenticity, interactiveness, impact (washback) and practicality. Their notion of usefulness can be expressed as in Figure2.3: Usefulness=Reliability + Construct validity + Authenticity + Interactiveness + Impact +Practicality These qualities are the main criteria used to evaluate a test. â€Å"Two of the qualities reliability and validity are critical for tests and are sometimes referred to as essential measurement qualities† (Bachman Palmer, 1996:19), because they are the â€Å"major justification for using test scores as a basis for making inferences or decisions† (ibid). The definitions of types of validity and reliability will be presented in this section. Validity And Reliability Defining Validity The quotation from AERA (American Educational Research Association ) indicates: â€Å"Validity is the most important consideration in test evaluation. The concept refers to the appropriateness, meaningfulness, and usefulness of the specific inferences made from test scores. Test validation is the process of accu ­mulating evidence to support such inferences. A variety of inferences may be made from scores produced by a given test, and there are many ways of accumulating evidence to support any particular inference. Validity, however, is a unitary concept. Although evidence may be accumulated in many ways, validity always refers to the degree to which that evidence supports the inferences that are made from the score. The inferences regarding specific uses of a test are validated, not the test itself.† (AERA et al., 1985: 9) Messick stresses that â€Å"it is important to note that validity is a matter of degree, not all or none (Mess Reliability of Speaking Proficiency Tests Reliability of Speaking Proficiency Tests Introduction Testing, as a part of English teaching, is a very important procedure, not just because it can be a valuable source of information about the effectiveness of learning and teaching but also because it can improve teaching, and arouse the students motivation to learn. Testing oral proficiency has become one of the most important issues in language testing since the role of speaking ability has become more central in language teaching with the advent of communicative language teaching (Nakamura, 1993). However, assessing speaking is challenging (Luoma, 2004). Validity and reliability, as fundamental concerns and essential measurement qualities of the speaking test (Bachman, 1990; Bachman Palmer, 1996; Alderson et al, 1995), have aroused widespread attention. The validation of the speaking test is an important area of research in language testing. Test of oral proficiency just started in China 15 years ago, and there are a few very dominant tests. An increasing number of Chinese linguists are putting their attention and efforts on analysis of their validity and reliability. Institutions began to introduce speaking tests into English exams in recent years with the widespread promotion of communicative language teaching (CLT). Publications that deal with speaking tests within institutions provide some qualitative assessments (Cai, 2002). But there is relatively little research literature relating to the reliability and validity of such measures within a university context. (Wen, 2001). The College English Department at Dalian Nationalities University (DLNU) has been selected as one of thirty-one institutions of the College English Reform Demonstration Project in the Peoples republic of China. In College English (CE) course of DLNU, the speaking test is one of the four subtests of the final examination of English assessment. The examination uses two different formats. One is a semi-direct speaking test, in which examinees talk to microphones connected to computers, and have their speeches recorded for the teachers to rate afterwards. The other is a face-to-face interview. This research in this paper aims to ascertain the degree of the reliability and validity of the speaking tests. By analyzing the results of the research, teachers will become more aware of the validity and reliability of oral assessments, including how to improve the reliability and validity of speaking tests. I, as a language teacher, will gain insight into the operation of language proficiency te st, In order to better degree of reliability and validity of a particular test, I will also take other qualities of test usefulness into account when designing the language proficiency test., such as practicality and authenticity. Research questions: This study mainly addresses the questions of validity and reliability of the speaking test administered at DLNU. They are comprehensive concepts that involve analysis of test tasks, administration, rating criteria, examinee and testers attitudes towards the test, the effect of the test on teaching and teacher or learner attitudes towards learning the tests (Luoma, 2004). Therefore, the purpose of this study is to answer the following research questions: 1. Is the speaking test administered at DLNU a valid and reliable test? This question can involve the following two sub-questions: 1) To what extent is the speaking test administered at DLNU reliable? 2) To what extent is the speaking test administered at DLNU valid? 2. In what aspects and to what extent may the validity and reliability of the speaking test administered at DLNU be improved? Literature Review This chapter presents a theoretical framework of speaking construct, ways of testing speaking, marking of speaking test and the reliability and validity of speaking test, also introduces the situation of speaking test in China. Analyzing Speaking And Speaking Test The Nature Of Speaking Speaking, as a social and situation-based activity, is an integral part of peoples daily lives (Luoma, 2004). Testing second language speaking is often claimed to be a much more difficult undertaking than testing other second language abilities, capacities or competencies, skills ¼Ã‹â€ Underhill, 1987). Assessment is difficult not only because speaking is fleeting, temporal and ephemeral, but also because of the comprehensibility of pronunciation, the special nature of spoken grammar and spoken vocabulary, as well as the interactive and social features of speaking (Luoma, 2004), because of the â€Å"unpredictability and dynamic nature† of language itself (Brown, 2003). To have a clear understanding of what it means to be able to speak a language, we must understand that the nature and characteristics of the spoken language differ from those of the written form (Luoma, 2004; McCarthy OKeefe, 2004; Bygate, 2001) in its grammar, syntax, lexis and discourse patterns due to the nature of spoken language. Spoken English involves reduced grammatical elements arranged into formulaic chunk expressions or utterances with less complex sentences than written texts. Spoken English breaks the standard word order because the omitted information can be restored from the instantaneous context (McCarthy OKeefe, 2004; Luoma, 2004; Bygate, 2001; Fulcher, 2003). Spoken English contains frequent use of the vernacular, interrogatives, tails, adjacency pairs, fillers and question tags which have been interpreted as dialogue facilitators (Luoma, 2004; Carter McCarthy, 1995). The speech also contains a fair number of slips and errors such as mispronounced words, mixed sounds, and wrong words due to inattention, which is often pardoned and allowed by native speakers (Luoma, 2004). Conversations are also negotiable, unpredictable, and susceptible to social and situational context in which the talks happen (Luoma, 2004). The Importance Of Speaking Test Testing oral proficiency has become one of the most important issues in language testing since the role of speaking ability has become more central in language teaching with the advent of CLA (Nakamura, 1993). Of the four language skills (listening, speaking, reading, writing), listening and reading occur in the receptive mode, while speaking and writing exist in the productive mode. Understanding and absorption of received information are foundational while expression and use of acquired information demonstrate an improvement and a more advanced test of knowledge. A lot of interests now in oral testing is partly because second language teaching is more than ever directed towards the speaking and listening skills ¼Ã‹â€ Underhill, 1987). Language teachers are engaged in â€Å"teaching a language through speaking† (Hughes, 2002:7). On one hand, spoken language is the focus of classroom activity. There are often other aims which the teacher might have: for instance, helping the student gain awareness of practice in some aspect of linguistic knowledge (ibid). On the other hand, speaking test, as a device for assessing the learners language proficiency also functions to motivate students and reinforce their learning of language. This represents what Bachman (1991) has called an â€Å"interface† between second language acquisition (SLA) and language testing research. However, assessing speaking is challenging, â€Å"because there are many factors that influence our impression of how well someone can speak a language† (Luoma, 2004:1) as well as unpredictable or impromptu nature of the speaking interaction. The testing of speaking is difficult due to practical obstacles and theoretical challenges. Much attention has been given to how to perfect the assessment system of oral English and how to improve its validity and reliability. The communicative nature of the testing environment also remains to be considered (Hughes, 2002). The Construct Of Speaking Introduction To Communicative Language Ability (CLA) A clear and explicit definition of language ability is essential to language test development and use (Bachman,1990). The theory on which a language test is based determines which kind of language ability the test can measure, This type of validity is called construct validity. According to Bachman (1990:84), CLA can be described as â€Å"consisting of both knowledge or competence and the capacity for implementing or executing that competence in appropriate, contextualized communicative language use†. CLA includes three components: language competence, strategic competence and pyschophysiological mechanisms. The following framework (figure 2.1) shows components of communicative language ability in communicative language use (Bachman,1990:85). Knowledge Structures Language Competence Knowledge of the world Knowledge Of Language Strategic Competence Psychophysiological Mechanisms Context Of Situation This framework has been widely accepted in the field of language testing. Bachman (1990:84) proposes that â€Å"language competence† essentially refers to a set of specific knowledge components that are utilized in communication via language. It comprises organizational and pragmatic competence. Two areas of organizational knowledge that Bachman (1990) distinguishes are grammatical knowledge and textual knowledge. Grammatical knowledge comprises vocabulary, syntax, phonology and graphology, and textual knowledge, comprises cohesion and rhetorical or conversational organization. Pragmatic competence shows how utterances or sentences and texts are related to the communicative goals of language users and to the features of the langue-use setting. It includes illocutionary acts ¼Ã…’or language functions, and sociolinguistic competence, or the knowledge of the sociolinguistic conventions that govern appropriate language use in a particular culture and in varying situations in t hat culture (Bachman, 1987). Strategic competence refers to mastery of verbal and nonverbal strategies in facilitating communication and implementing the components of language competence. Strategic competence is demonstrated in contextualized communicative language use, such as socialcultural knowledge, real-world knowledge and mapping this onto the maximally efficient use of existing language abilities. Psychophysiological competence refers to the visual and auditory skill used to gain access to the information in the administrators instructions. Among other things, psychophysiological competence includes things like sound and light. Fulchers Construct Definition To know what to assess in a speaking test is a prime concern. Fulcher (1997b) points out that the construct of speaking proficiency is incomplete. Nevertheless, there have been various attempts to reflect the underlying construct of speaking ability and to develop theoretical frameworks for defining the speaking construct. Fulchers framework (figure 2.2) (Fulcher, 2003: 48) describes the speaking construct. As Fulcher (2003) points out that there are many factors that could be included in the definition of the construct: Phonology: the speaker must be able to articulate the words, have an understanding of the phonetic structure of the language at the level of the individual word, have an understanding of intonation, and create the physical sounds that carry meaning. Fluency and accuracy: these concepts are associated with automaticity of performance and the impact on the ability of the listener to understand. Accuracy refers to the correct use of grammatical rules, structure and vocabulary in speech. Fluency has to do with the ‘normal speed of delivery to mobilise ones language knowledge in the service of communication at relatively normal speed. The quality of speech needs to be judged in terms of the gravity of the errors made or the distance from the target forms or sounds. Strategic competence: this is generally thought to refer to an ability to achieve ones communicative purpose through the deployment of a range of coping strategies. Strategic competence includes both achievement strategies and avoidance strategies. Achievement strategies contain overgeneralization/morphological creativity. Learners transfer knowledge of the language system onto lexical items that they do not know, for example, saying â€Å"buyed† instead of â€Å"bought†, Speakers also learn approximation: learners replace an unknown word with one that is more general or they use exemplification, paraphrasing (use a synonym for the word needed), word coinage (invent a new word for an unknown word), restructuring (use different words to communicate the same message), cooperative strategies (ask for help from the listener) , code switching (take a word or phrase from the common language with the listener in order to be understood) and non-linguistic strategies (use gestur es or mime, or point to objects in the surroundings to help to communicate). Avoidance or reduction strategies consist of formal avoidance (avoiding using part of the language system) and functional avoidance (avoiding topical conversation). Strategic competence includes selecting communicative goals and planning and structuring oral production so as to fulfill them. Textual knowledge: competent oral interaction involves some knowledge of how to manage and structure discourse, for example, through appropriate turn-taking, opening and closing strategies, maintaining coherence in ones contributions and employing appropriate interactional routines such as adjacency pairs. Pragmatic and sociolinguistic knowledge: effective communication requires appropriateness and the knowledge of the rules of speaking. A range of speech acts, politeness and indirectness can be used to avoid causing offence. Ways Of Testing Speaking Clark (1979) puts forward a theoretical basis to discriminate three types of speaking tests: direct, semi-direct and indirect tests. Indirect tests belong to â€Å"procommunicative† era in language testing, in which the test takers are not actually required to speak. It has been regarded as having the least validity and reliability, while the other two formats are more widely used (OLoughlin, 2001). In this section, the characteristics, advantages and disadvantages of the direct and semi-direct test are presented, The Oral Proficiency Interview Format One of the earliest and most popular direct speaking test formats, and one that continues to exert a strong influence, is the oral proficiency interview (OPI) –developed originally by the FSI (Foreign Service Institute) in the United States in the 1950s and later adopted by other government agencies. It is conducted with individual test-taker by a trained interviewer, who assesses the candidate using a global band scale (OLoughlin, 2001). It typically begins with a warm-up discussion of a few easy questions, such as getting to know each other or talking about the days events. Then the main interaction contains the pre-planned tasks, such as describing or comparing pictures, narrating from a picture series, talking about a pre-announced or examiner-selected topic, or possibly a role-play task or a reverse interview where the examinee asks question of the interviewer (Luoma. 2004). An important example of this type of test is the speaking component of the International English L anguage Testing System (IELTS), which is adopted in 105 different countries around the world each year. The Advantage Of An Interview Format The oral interview was recognized as the most commonly used speaking test format. Fulcher (2003) suggests that it is partly because the questions used can be standardized, making comparison between test takers easier than when other task types are used. Using this method, the instructor can get a sense of the oral communicative competence of students and can overcome weakness of written exams, because the interview, unlike written exams, â€Å"is flexible in that the questions can be adapted to each examinees performance, and thus the testers have more controls over what happens in the interaction† (Luoma, 2004:35). It is also relatively easy to train raters and obtain high inter-rater reliability (Fulcher, 2003). The Disadvantage Of An Interview Format However, concern and skepticism exist about whether it is possible to test other competencies or knowledge because of the nature of the discourse that the interview produces (van Lier, 1989). a. Issue of time For the instructor, time management can be quite an issue. For instance, using a two-hour period for exams for 20 students means each student is allowed only six minutes for testing. This includes the time needed to enter the room and adjust to the setting. With such a time limit the student and instructor can hardly have any kind of normal real-world conversation. b. Issue of asymmetrical relationship The asymmetrical relationship between examiners and candidates elicits a form of inauthentic and limited socio-cultural contexts (van Lier, 1989; Savignon, 1985; Yoffe, 1997). Yoffe (1997) commented on ACTFL (American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages) OPI that the tester and the test-taker are â€Å"clearly not in equal positions† (Yofee, 1997). The asymmetry is not specific to the OPI but is inherent in the notion of an interview as an exchange wherein one person solicits information in order to arrive at a decision while the interlocutor produces what he or she perceives as most valued. The interviewee is, in most cases, acutely aware of the ramifications of the OPI rating and is, consequently, under a great deal of stress. Van Lier (1989) also challenges the validity of OPI in terms of the asymmetry between them because â€Å"the candidate speaks as to a superior and is unwilling to take the initiative† (van Lier, 1989). Under the unequal relationship, the speech discourse, such as turn –taking, topic nomination and development, and repair strategies are all substantially different from normal conversational exchanges (see van Lier 1989). c. Issue of interviewer variation Given the fact that the interviewer has considerable power over the examinee in an interview, concerns have been aroused about the effect of the interlocutor (examiner) on the candidates oral performance. Different interviewers vary in their approaches and attitudes toward the interview. Brown (2003) warns the danger of such variation to fairness. OSullivan (2000) conducts an empirical study that indicated learners perform better when interviewed by a woman, regardless of the sex of the learner. Underhill (1987:31) expresses his concern on the unscripted â€Å"flexibility†¦ means that there will be a considerable divergence between what different learners say, which makes a test more difficult to assess with consistency and reliability.† Testing Speaking In Pairs There has been a shift toward a paired speakers format: two assessors examine two candidates at a time. One assessor interacts with the two candidates and rates them on a global scale, while the other does not take part in the interaction and just assessesusing an analytic scale. The paired oral test has been used as part of large-scale, international, standardized oral proficiency tests since the late 1980s (Ildikà ³, 2001). Key English Test (KET), Preliminary English Test (PET), First Certificate in English (FCE) and Certificate in Advanced English (CAE) make use of the paired format. In a typical test, the interaction begins with a warm-up, in which the examinees introduce themselves to the interlocutor, followed by two pair interaction task. The talk may involves comparing two photographs by each candidate at first, such as in Cambridge First Certificate (Luoma, 2004), then a two-way collaborative task between the two candidates based on more photographs, artwork or computer gra phics, and ends up with a three-way discussion with the two examinees and the interlocutor about a general theme that is related to the earlier discussion. The advantages of the paired interview format Many researchers claim that the paired format is preferable to OPI. The reasons are: a. The changed role of the interviewer frees up the instructors in order to pay closer attention to the production of each candidate than if they are participants themselves (Luoma, 2004). b. The reduced asymmetry allows more varied interaction patterns, which elicits a broader sample of discourse and increased turn-takings than were possible in the highly asymmetrical traditional interview (Taylor, 2000). c. The task type based on pair-work will generate a positive washback effect on classroom teaching and learning (Ildiko, 2001). In the case of the instructor following Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) methodology, where pair work may take up a significant portion of a class, it would be appropriate to incorporate similar activities in the exam. In that way the exam itself is much better integrated into the fabric of the course. Students can be tested for performance related to activities done in class. There may also be benefits in regards to student motivation. If students are aware that they will be tested on activities similar to the ones done in class, they may have more incentive to be attentive and use class time effectively. The disadvantages of the paired interview format There are, however, also concerns voiced regarding the paired format. a. Mismatches between peer interactants The most frequently raised criticisms against the paired speaking test relate to various forms of mismatches between peer interactants (Fulcher, 2003). Ildiko (2001) points out that when a candidate has to work with an incomprehensible or uncomprehending peer partner, it may negatively influence the candidates performance. As a consequence, in such cases it is quite impossible to make a valid assessment of candidates abilities. b. Lack of familiarity between peer interactants The extent to which this testing format actually reduces the level of anxiety of test-takers compared to other test formats remains doubtful (Fulcher, 2003). OSullivan (2002) suggests that the spontaneous support offered by a friend positively reduces anxiety and task performance under experimental conditions. However, the chances are quite high that the examinee will meet with strangers as his or her peer interactant. It is hard to imagine how these strangers can carry out some naturally flowing conversations. Estrangement, misinterpretation and even breakdown may occur during their talk. c. Lack of control of the discussion Problems are generated if the examiner loses control of the oral task (Luoma, 2004). When the instructions and task materials are not clear enough to facilitate the discussion, the examinees conversation may go astray. Luoma (2004) points out that testers often feel uncertain about what amount of responsibility that they should give to the examinees. Furthermore, examinees do not know what kind of performance will earn them good results without the elicitation of the examiner. When one of the examinees has said too little, the examiner ought to monitor and jump in to give help when necessary. Semi-Direct Speaking Tests The term â€Å"semi-direct† is employed by Clark (1979:36) to describe those tests that are characterized â€Å"by means of tape recordings, printed test booklets, or other ‘non-human elicitation procedures, rather than through face-to-face conversation with a live interlocutor.† Appearing during 1970s, and being an innovative adaptation of the traditional OPI, the semi-direct method normally follows the general structure of the OPI and makes an audio-recording of the test takers performance which is later rated by one or more trained assessors (Malone, 2000). Examples of the semi-direct type used in the U.S.A. are the simulated oral proficiency interviews (SOPI) and the Test of Spoken English 2000 (TSE) (Ferguson, 2009). Examples in U.K. include the Test in English for Education Purpose (TEEP) and the Oxford-ARELS Examinations (OLoughlin, 2001). Another mode of delivery is testing by telephone as in the PhonePass test (the test mainly consists of reading sentenc es aloud or repeating sentences), or even video-conferencing (Ferguson, 2009). The Advantages Of The Semi-Direct Test Type First, the semi-direct test is more cost efficient than direct tests, because many candidates can be tested simultaneously in large laboratories and administered by any teacher, language lab technician or aide in a language laboratory where the candidate hears taped questions and has their responses recorded (Malone, 2000). Second, the mode of testing is quite flexible. It provides a practical solution in situations where it is not possible to deliver a direct test (OLoughlin, 2001), and it can be adapted to the desired level of examinee proficiency and to specific examinee age groups, backgrounds, and professions (Malone, 2000). Third, semi-direct testing represents an attempt to standardize the assessment of speaking while retaining the communicative basis of the OPI (Shohamy, 1994). It offers the same quality of interview to all examinees, and all examinees respond to the same questions so as to remove the effect that the human interlocutor will have on the candidate (Malone, 2000). The uniformity of the elicitation procedure greatly increases the reliability of the test. Some empirical studies (Stansfield, 1991) show high correlations (0. 89- 0. 95) between the direct and semi-direct tests, indicating the two formats can measure the same language abilities and the SOPI can be the equivalent and surrogate of the OPI. However, there are also disadvantages. The Disadvantages Of The Semi-Direct Test Type First, the speaking task in semi-direct oral test is less realistic and more artificial than OPI (Clark, 1979; Underhill, 1987). Examinees use artificial language to â€Å"respond to tape-recorded questions situations the examinee is not likely to encounter in a real-life setting† (Clark, 1979:38). They may feel stressful while speaking to a microphone rather than to another person, especially if they are not accustomed to the laboratory setting (OLoughlin, 2001). Second, the communicative strategy and speech discourse elicited in these semi-direct SOPIs is quite different from that found in typical face-face interaction – being more formal, less conversation-like (Shohamy, 1994). Candidates tend to use written language in tape-mediated test, more of a report or narration; while, they focus more on interaction and on delivery of meanings in OPI. Third, there are often technical problems that can result in poor quality recordings or even no recording in the SOPI format (Underhill, 1987). In conclusion, one cannot assume any equivalence between a face-to face test and a semi-direct test (Shohamy, 1994). It may be that they are measuring different things, different constructs, so the mode of test delivery should be adopted on the basis of test purpose, accuracy requirement, practicability, and impartiality (Shohamy, 1994). Stansfield (1991) proposes the OPI is more applicable to the placement test and evaluation test of the curriculum, while SOPI is more appropriate for large-scale test with requirement of high reliability. Marking Of Speaking Test Marking and scoring is a challenge in assessing second language oral proficiency.. Since only a few elements of the speaking skill can be scored objectively, human judgments play major roles in assessment. How to establish the valid, reliable, effective marking criteria scales and high quality scoring instruments have always been central to the performance testing of speaking (Luoma, 2004). It is important to have clear, explicit criteria to describe the performance, as it is important for raters to understand and apply these criteria, making it possible to score them consistently and reliably. For these reasons, rating and rating scales have been a central focus of research in the testing of speaking (Ferguson, 2009). Definition Of Rating Scales A rating scale, also referred to as a â€Å"scoring rubric† or â€Å"proficiency scale† is defined by Davies et al as following (see Fulcher, 2003):  ·consisting of a series of band or levels to which descriptions are attached  ·providing an operational definition of the constructs to be measured in the test  ·requiring training for its effective operation Holistic And Analytic Rating Scales There are different types of rating scales used for scoring speech samples. One of the traditional and commonly used distinctions is between holistic and analytic rating scales. Holistic rating scales also are referred to as global rating. With these scales, the rater attempts to match the speech sample with a particular band whose descriptors specify a range of defining characteristics of speech at that level. A single score is given to each speech sample either impressionistically or by being guided by a rating scale to encapsulate all the features of the sample (Bachman Palmer, 1996). Analytic rating scales: They consist of separate scales for different aspects of speaking ability (e.g. grammar / vocabulary; pronunciation, fluency, interactional management, etc). A score is given for each aspect (or dimension), and the resulting scores may be combined in a variety of ways to produce a composite single overall score. They include detailed guidance to raters, and rich information that they provide on specific strengths and weakness in examinee performance (Fulcher, 2003). Analytic scales are particularly useful for diagnostic purposes and for providing a profile of competence in the different aspects of speaking ability (Ferguson, 2009). The type of scale that is selected for a particular test of speaking will depend upon the purpose of the test Validity And Reliability Of Speaking Test Bachman And Palmers Theories On Test Usefulness The primary purpose of a language test is to provide a measure that can be interpreted as an indicator of an individuals language ability (Bachman, 1990; Bachman and Palmer, 1996). Bachman and Palmer (1996) propose that test usefulness including six test qualities—reliability, construct validity, authenticity, interactiveness, impact (washback) and practicality. Their notion of usefulness can be expressed as in Figure2.3: Usefulness=Reliability + Construct validity + Authenticity + Interactiveness + Impact +Practicality These qualities are the main criteria used to evaluate a test. â€Å"Two of the qualities reliability and validity are critical for tests and are sometimes referred to as essential measurement qualities† (Bachman Palmer, 1996:19), because they are the â€Å"major justification for using test scores as a basis for making inferences or decisions† (ibid). The definitions of types of validity and reliability will be presented in this section. Validity And Reliability Defining Validity The quotation from AERA (American Educational Research Association ) indicates: â€Å"Validity is the most important consideration in test evaluation. The concept refers to the appropriateness, meaningfulness, and usefulness of the specific inferences made from test scores. Test validation is the process of accu ­mulating evidence to support such inferences. A variety of inferences may be made from scores produced by a given test, and there are many ways of accumulating evidence to support any particular inference. Validity, however, is a unitary concept. Although evidence may be accumulated in many ways, validity always refers to the degree to which that evidence supports the inferences that are made from the score. The inferences regarding specific uses of a test are validated, not the test itself.† (AERA et al., 1985: 9) Messick stresses that â€Å"it is important to note that validity is a matter of degree, not all or none (Mess

Essay --

After the Civil War conditions were bad for both Southern blacks and Southern whites. There were 4 million black men and women emerging from bondage. They began forming all black communities, freeing themselves from white control. But in 1865, Southern state legislatures began enacting sets of laws called Black Codes. These laws authorized local officials to apprehend unemployed blacks, fine them for vagrancy and hire them out to private employers to satisfy their fine. Some codes allowed blacks to only take jobs as plantation workers or servants. The South found a way to go back to slavery without breaking the new laws. In 1866, Congress passed the first Civil Rights Act, which declared blacks as citizens of the United States which allowed the federal government to intervene in state affairs when necessary to protect the rights of the citizens. Then in June of 1866, Congress approved the 14th Amendment which states that everyone born in the United States, and everyone naturalized was automatically a citizen and entitled to equal protection by both state and national government. Even though slavery was abolished and blacks were, at least by law, free and considered equal, they still did not have the same rights and opportunities as white people. In February of 1869, Congress passed the 15th Amendment. The Amendment attempts to ensure black voting rights by stipulating that voting rights cannot be denied on the basis of race, color, or previous servitude. But yet it did nothing to allow the Southern whites to prevent blacks from voting. Since blacks were not educated and did not own property or have the money to pay poll taxes it made it almost impossible for blacks to vote. There was a dramatic improvement in south... ...freedom was granted to the slaves, they were no longer property and therefore no longer worth anything to the former slave owners. In every which way the South tried to get back to the ways of slavery. Blacks also faced the dark problem of hate crimes and white supremacy. Blacks never actually gained their freedom for years to come. Freedom is the lack of restrictions, but blacks were still being told what they can and cannot do or where they can and cannot go. The law stated that blacks were allowed to vote but made it almost impossible for them to actually do so. The blacks were given land then had it taken away from them when the whites who abandoned that land came back to claim it. It was a struggle for a former slave to begin an actual life for them or their families. Blacks were not given the opportunities and the chance at the new life that they were promised. Essay -- After the Civil War conditions were bad for both Southern blacks and Southern whites. There were 4 million black men and women emerging from bondage. They began forming all black communities, freeing themselves from white control. But in 1865, Southern state legislatures began enacting sets of laws called Black Codes. These laws authorized local officials to apprehend unemployed blacks, fine them for vagrancy and hire them out to private employers to satisfy their fine. Some codes allowed blacks to only take jobs as plantation workers or servants. The South found a way to go back to slavery without breaking the new laws. In 1866, Congress passed the first Civil Rights Act, which declared blacks as citizens of the United States which allowed the federal government to intervene in state affairs when necessary to protect the rights of the citizens. Then in June of 1866, Congress approved the 14th Amendment which states that everyone born in the United States, and everyone naturalized was automatically a citizen and entitled to equal protection by both state and national government. Even though slavery was abolished and blacks were, at least by law, free and considered equal, they still did not have the same rights and opportunities as white people. In February of 1869, Congress passed the 15th Amendment. The Amendment attempts to ensure black voting rights by stipulating that voting rights cannot be denied on the basis of race, color, or previous servitude. But yet it did nothing to allow the Southern whites to prevent blacks from voting. Since blacks were not educated and did not own property or have the money to pay poll taxes it made it almost impossible for blacks to vote. There was a dramatic improvement in south... ...freedom was granted to the slaves, they were no longer property and therefore no longer worth anything to the former slave owners. In every which way the South tried to get back to the ways of slavery. Blacks also faced the dark problem of hate crimes and white supremacy. Blacks never actually gained their freedom for years to come. Freedom is the lack of restrictions, but blacks were still being told what they can and cannot do or where they can and cannot go. The law stated that blacks were allowed to vote but made it almost impossible for them to actually do so. The blacks were given land then had it taken away from them when the whites who abandoned that land came back to claim it. It was a struggle for a former slave to begin an actual life for them or their families. Blacks were not given the opportunities and the chance at the new life that they were promised.

Little Miss Sunshine Family Assessment Essay

Introduction Family can be a source of support, comfort, optimism, love and happiness, but family can also be a cause of depression, betrayal, hurt and pain. Family is not always determined by the having the same DNA running through one’s veins but it is the bond that people can have with one another. Family can consist of friends, co-workers, classmates, a community or a group of other people. Some family members can be the worst enemies because they have the most ammunition of secrets to bring a relative down. Being able to trust a person, depend on them, and be carefree is a person that can be valued as being a part of a family. In the movie Little Miss Sunshine, their dysfunctional family is loving, supportive, optimistic as well as motivating. The movie is filled with dark humor about a modern middle-class family that is about to encounter financial catastrophe but in the midst of their struggles they still find the beauty in life. In the opening of the movie Richard, the father is giving a motivational speech about winning, he states â€Å"There are two types of people in this world, winners and losers†. Richard is a protagonist motivational speaker that is obsessed with winning. He is so consumed with achieving that he ridicules his family for not being perfect throughout the film. Sheryl is the mother who is an optimist, she is always giving words of encouragement even when Richard is trying to bring his family down and she is all about honest. Frank is the brother of Sheryl whom at the beginning attempts to commit suicide due to a broken heart and losing his standing as America’s pre-eminent Proust Scholar. Dwayne is the son of Richard and Sheryl and is committed to being in the air force. He is so committed that he takes a vow of silence until he gets into the air force, but then finds out he is colored blind and breaks his silence. Olive is another protagonist character in the film, she is t he daughter of Frank and Sheryl and has dreams of  becoming a beauty queen. Grandpa is Olive’s beauty queen pageant coach and is a late in life convert to heroine and porn, he eventually dies from a drug overdose. Main themes within the film are irony, issues of struggling to be perfect with the trials and set backs as a middle class family as well as exposing beauty pageants for little girls in America. Irony is a main theme in the movie because the roles each character plays contradicts who they are trying to be. Richard is all about motivating others to win and pushing his â€Å"9 steps to Success† however ironically he is unsuccessful in his motivational speeches. In the opening scenes Richard is giving his â€Å"9 Steps to Success† lecture to a class of no more than 4 or 5 students and his steps to success are denied because no one knows who he is. Olive’s character also shows irony because she is an overweight, unfashionable 7 year old that is competing in glamor beauty pageants. Grandpa is in late adulthood but is acting as though he is in the stages of early adulthood by doing drugs instead of watching out for his health to prolong his life. Dwayne is showed to be working out and lifting at the beginning of the movie like as if he is a pro-athlete but is very slender and pale. Throughout the film the irony within each character and the masks they wore cha nged for the better. Issues of struggling in the film for this middle class family shows how they are on the verge of a financial catastrophe. Richard was so invested in his contract for his steps to success and depended on that source of income only to find out his contract was cancelled. The Hoover’s van breaks down multiple times and has many issues, such as the horn constantly honking. The family also did not have the money to go to California but made the trip anyway to chase Olive’s dream that would may come true. Even after the pageant financial burdens await them with the transportation of grandpa’s corpse and the costs for a funeral. With all the struggles this family endures the characters ways of thinking changed into optimistic views of life. Little Miss Sunshine was the beauty pageant that Olive was competing in and when the family arrived they realized that the Olive did not contain the  glamor and elegance of the other contestants. This film displayed the process in which the little girls had to go through to fulfil the image of a beauty pageant queen. In the middle of the film Olive orders ice cream for breakfast and Richard lectures her about her way of eating and that beauty pageant winners do not eat ice cream so that way they can look thin and win. During the pageant Olive shows her talent of dancing and the judges are offended, the crowd is disgusted and the host of the pageant attempts to get her off stage all because she does not fulfill the image of what society says a beauty pageant contestant should look like. But after Olive’s performance Richard then compliments her for doing such a great job and that her grandpa would have been proud of her. Richard realizes that his daughter is who she is and is proud to know that she tries her best in all she does and enjoys herself. Assessing the family one can determine that they have yet to achieve homeostasis. The family system as a whole shows that they are unable to maintain a stable constant state of balance financially however they are able to achieve this with their family structure. An example of the strong structure in this family system is having dinner with everyone present at the table, even Dwayne though he holds his vow of silence. Boundaries within the family system are set by Richard and most of the time it is him against everyone else. Subsystems include the brother Frank, the children Olive and Dwayne and grandpa. Each member has a role to play where Sheryl’s role is the most important because she is matriarch of the family, she is what holds the family together with her optimism and encouragement. There is a strong relationship between Olive and Dwayne, when Dwayne breaks down after finding out he is color blind Olive is there to comfort him same with Dwayne being there for Olive when she is getting ridiculed onstage at the Little Miss Sunshine pageant. The parents however seem to be on the brink of a divorce due to the constant arguments, if financial burdens get any tougher it may break their marriage. The family is experience negative entropy, each member is growing and developing. Frank who was at first suicidal is giving Dwayne advice about life. Richard is realizing that life is not all about winning but seeing the beauty in loving his family for who they are and what they do. When questioning the family, concerns would be whether or not Frank is still at risk of suicide? Has Frank identified the immediate problem that is causing excessive stress? He is suffering from a broken heart and due to that he is losing everything else around him because the man before is overshadowing his family, his goals, and his future. Has Frank identified any strengths that he still has? This question is asked because he is depressed about losing his job and as well as his standing as America’s pre-eminent Proud Scholar. Frank does show some signs of depression, he has a made a previous attempt, and he has no spouse. According to the SAD PERSONS scale Frank as a client may be considered for hospitalization though he has an amazing support system with his family.(344).

Do you agree the professional athletes such as football player and basketball player deserve high salaries to be paid? Essay

Undoubtedly, there is a long and tough way towards becoming a great and the famous sports star, not only persistent efforts but also talent are required. Few people on this field could accomplish great things like them. As a reward, they deserve a higher compensation. However, in my opinion, they are paid a crazy amount of salary that is far more than ordinary working people. A lot of money is needed for many purposes, for example, for the aid of starving people in the less economically developing counties, in building school buildings for the children in poverty mountains and help the patients regain their health. If the money that spent on the professional athletes are used on the purpose of these bare necessities of life. Thousands of people will be benefited, which is more meaningful in my opinion. In addition, there are professionals in other fields that provide the population by far much more than the professional athletes such as player of football. For example, education, essentially, is a vital key that will unlock a country’s potential. However, teachers are not paid too much. Generally, teachers are paid between 3000 to 6000 yuan a month in my city. Even those senior professor, who have years of experiences and have the respect of his students, is always paid less than 10000. Similarly, the average doctor, who have working more than 8 hours a day, earns around 5000 yuan a month. Hence, we have to pay more attention and pay more wages to them rather than the professional athletes. From those reasons, we can safely conclude that professional athletes are supposed to pay higher but moderate wages

The Maturing of Huckleberry Finn essays

The Maturing of Huckleberry Finn essays In the Adventures of Huckleberry Finn novel the protagonist Huck goes through emotional and traumatizing experiences. He has had to change his out look due to these experiences, whether good or bad. In the beginning of the novel, Huck is making an early opposition towards sivilizing. Hucks opposition to civilization is based on some observations about the worth of society. The Widow Douglas she took me for her son, and allowed she would sivilize me; but it was rough living in the house all the time, considering how dismal regular and decent the widow was in all her ways; and so when I couldnt stand it no longer I lit out. I got into my old rags and my sugar-hogshead again, and was free and satisfied. But Tom Sawyer he hunted me up and said he was going to start a band of robbers, and I might join if I would go back to the window and be respectable. So I went back. In this quote, civilization and respectability is associated with a childish game. This game in which the participants, Huck and Tom are to play criminals. Under the influence of Tom, Huck gives in goes back to the widows, but his dislike for society will reappear. At the point of chapter eighteen, about halfway through the novel, Huck had just escaped the Grangerford-Shepherdson feud, and he is thoroughly sickened by society. He disgusted for the fact of the irony of the pastor giving a sermon on brotherly love, and all members were holding guns carrying the hatred. I hadnt had a bite to eat since yesterday, so Jim he got out some corn-dodgers and buttermilk, and pork and cabbage and greens-there aint nothing in the world so good when its cooked right- and whilst I eat my supper we talked and had a good time... We said there warnt no home like a raft, after all. Other places do seem so cramped up and smothery, but a raft dont. You feel mighty free and easy on a raft. ...

Free Essays on Chapters Inc

Chapters Inc. – Indigo Books & Music Inc. merger The idea of a superstore book retailer was that of Larry Stevenson, the former CEO of Chapters Inc. This legacy of creating the ultimate booklovers haven began when Stevenson acquired Coles and Smithbooks. These smaller retailers helped to formulate the idea of Chapters, which was launched in 1996. Later that year Heather Reisman the co-owner of Trilogy Retail Enterprises established her own branch of superstore book retailing called Borders Canada, this created a bitter rivalry. This rivalry stems back to the day when Reisman launched Borders Canada, which was an American and Canadian book retailing venture. Stevenson, sensing competition lobbied the idea, and Industry Canada disallowed the creation of this company. Reisman evidently did not give up, and later that year founded Indigo Inc., she hired away seven on the top executives from Chapters Inc., which infuriated Stevenson. Over the years, the inability to control inventory and the failure of Chapters Inc.’s e-commerce endeavor caused an $84.5 million annual loss by Chapters Inc., Indigo Inc.’s losses were also great totaling $31.7 million. Many saw the merger of the two industry conglomerates as the only means of salvaging their operations. When Indigo Inc., on November 28, 2000 made its bid to obtain Chapters Inc; many industry analysts had different ideas about the merger. Tom McFeat of CBC News Online recognized the need for healthy competition in the market place. Mcfeat compared Chapters and Indigo Inc.’s number of stores and found that there would be no competition in the Canadian Book Industry if the two chose not to merge. He identified that with the merger of Chapters Inc. and Indigo Inc. stores would have to be closed resulting in Job losses for those who are employed by the respective companies. This does not include the lost revenue and jobs for independent bookstore owners who cannot compete with such a l... Free Essays on Chapters Inc Free Essays on Chapters Inc Chapters Inc. – Indigo Books & Music Inc. merger The idea of a superstore book retailer was that of Larry Stevenson, the former CEO of Chapters Inc. This legacy of creating the ultimate booklovers haven began when Stevenson acquired Coles and Smithbooks. These smaller retailers helped to formulate the idea of Chapters, which was launched in 1996. Later that year Heather Reisman the co-owner of Trilogy Retail Enterprises established her own branch of superstore book retailing called Borders Canada, this created a bitter rivalry. This rivalry stems back to the day when Reisman launched Borders Canada, which was an American and Canadian book retailing venture. Stevenson, sensing competition lobbied the idea, and Industry Canada disallowed the creation of this company. Reisman evidently did not give up, and later that year founded Indigo Inc., she hired away seven on the top executives from Chapters Inc., which infuriated Stevenson. Over the years, the inability to control inventory and the failure of Chapters Inc.’s e-commerce endeavor caused an $84.5 million annual loss by Chapters Inc., Indigo Inc.’s losses were also great totaling $31.7 million. Many saw the merger of the two industry conglomerates as the only means of salvaging their operations. When Indigo Inc., on November 28, 2000 made its bid to obtain Chapters Inc; many industry analysts had different ideas about the merger. Tom McFeat of CBC News Online recognized the need for healthy competition in the market place. Mcfeat compared Chapters and Indigo Inc.’s number of stores and found that there would be no competition in the Canadian Book Industry if the two chose not to merge. He identified that with the merger of Chapters Inc. and Indigo Inc. stores would have to be closed resulting in Job losses for those who are employed by the respective companies. This does not include the lost revenue and jobs for independent bookstore owners who cannot compete with such a l...

HOW TO QUOTE IN AN ESSAY

HOW TO QUOTE IN AN ESSAY You wonder how to use quotes in essay, search no more. We are eager to share with you how to quote in an essay. Quoting passages in books, magazines, etc, essays, research papers and other articles is determined by two major points. First is the appropriateness belonging to the passage you wish to quote which is highly important. The second is choose the main idea of your paragraph that will reflect the whole subject concept and to incorporate the quotation. Additionally , there are a minimum of two fundamental rules that you need to pursue remember when you are putting sentences directly from your source for instance a book to your writing composition. One, you must put the proper citation at the end of the direct quote. Two, you should always place quotation marks in the beginning and at the end of your quote to indicate out that the phrase within your paragraph is actually taken out from a different source. It is vital to make note of that your quotation for your direct quotes should stick to the citation format required by your teacher. It is also important that you should thoroughly select the quotes you want to incorporate into your essay or essay. You have to make sure that each direct quote is highly relevant to your paragraphs main idea or main subject. Otherwise, your quoted line will make your argument, discussions or research vulnerable and weak.

Genetically-modified organisms and the environment Essay

Genetically-modified organisms and the environment - Essay Example However, like two sides of a coin every new technology has its drawbacks and genetic modification is not an exception. â€Å"Despite the potential benefits of this new technology to improve the reliability and quality of the world food supply, public and scientific concerns have been raised about the environmental and food safety of GM crops† (Jan-Peter et al,2003). Most impacts of genetically modified plants and animals maybe seen clearly at the environmental even though environmental scientists are yet not sure of what impacts these modifications will have on the environment in the long run. The concept of selective reproduction is not new and has been in use for hundreds of years in both agriculture and animal husbandry. However, this control has today reached the molecular level where it is possible to target particular desirable genes and selected the desired trait. Organisms which include plants, animals and even microbes whose genome has been manipulated to enhance expression of a certain gene or allele primarily for some kind of benefit are known as genetically modified organisms. With the help of genetic engineering researchers can obtain any desired gene expression. Genetically engineered corps or transgenic crops such as cotton, potato and corn were modified such that they could express Bt toxin which diminished the usage of chemical insecticides while being grown. Genetically modified crops can also be used for therapeutic purposes such as Golden rice which was inserted with a gene that could express and help in the production of beta carotene; a source of vitamin A. Microbes mainly bacterial genome has been modified to produce chemicals and enzymes. Larger animals such a fishes, mice and Drosophila have been genetically modified mainly for research purposes. However, each of these modifications mainly that of growing crops which is in direct contact with the natural environment i.e. away from the laboratory setting, has impacts that

Basketball why is it my number one US best sports and different in Research Paper

Basketball why is it my number one US best sports and different in rules from NCCA - Research Paper Example The five players from each team may be on the court at one time and substitutions are unlimited though they can only be done when play is stopped. A team can score a field goal by shooting the ball through the hoop during regular play. A regulation basketball hoop consists of a rim 18 inches in diameter and 10 feet high mounted onto a backboard. Afield goal scores two points for the shooting team if a player is touching or closer to the hoop than the three point line while three points are scored if the player is outside the three-point line. The team with more points at the end of the game emerges the winners. It is evident that basketball is one of the best and most popular sports in the USA. It has taken a big role in shaping the cultures of many a people, the young and the old alike. One of the reasons making basket ball a popular sport is street basket ball, a spin-off basket ball played by millions of people. Street basket ball players are both females and males with the ages ranging between 5 and 65 years. Kids start familiarizing themselves with the sport at kindergarten levels. A person’s life as a street ball player usually takes many years as it doesn’t require much practice because it is played for fun (Mallon, 49). This introduction of boys and girls to basketball at such a young age has gone a long way in popularizing the game and in most cases street basket ball players proceed to becoming professionals in the sports. Another reason why basketball has been considered one of the most popular sports in USA is the roles played by the National Basketball Association. The NBA has engendered international interests in the sport and also involved the various USA teams in numerous league matches and thus adding growth to the sport. The NBA commitment in basketball world has played a major role in developing and

Business Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words - 2

Business Management - Essay Example These new people in the organization always bring in something that they give to the organization as well as learning from the organization at the same time. In today’s modern world technical skills have gained more importance and so has the need for the understanding of the behavior of these people (Kreitner, 2009). A study of organizations which encompasses different viewpoints and is based on multiple levels of analysis is termed as Organizational Behavior. The study involves the behavior of the people in the working environment (Schein, 2004). The importance of organizational behavior is seen in an organizations development. Organizational behavior is used to increase the performance of an organization wholly and individually. The role of organizational behavior is very important these days, many different types of people with varied ethnic backgrounds and cultures work together and hence its importance and popularity is increasing in the business community (Harris, 2001). It covers other fields like sociology, psychology, management and effective communication. Moreover organizational Behavior helps in the improvement of how the company can elevate its performance as well as the individuals that are working in it. Organizational Behavior covers topics like diversity of cultures, team intera ctions, and design of organization, influence, leadership and power. Organizational Behavior is all about the ability to manage as well as lead thereby increasing the output of the organization (Kreitner, 2009). The purpose of Organizational Behavior is to find out the factors that affect the company’s performance and the individuals that work in an organization are studied so as to find out the shortfalls in them that lead to the company’s downfall. The study is used to find out the factors that will increase organizations effectiveness

Strategic Contingencles Affecting the Strategic Choices That Qantas Essay

Strategic Contingencles Affecting the Strategic Choices That Qantas - Essay Example This paper declares that an organization should have a prepared in advance change management, or even emergency management, strategy and procedures. Such a plan will help to respond to changes fast and effectively. In addition, it will help the HR department to ensure that the measures a company takes in such a situation are clear and understood by the employees. This essay explores that the particular goal of HR management is one of the focus points of the given paper. In addition, this works aims to analyse and evaluate real-life strategic contingencies that might have great impact on strategic choices, as well as HR planning, of an organization. In particular, the case of Group of Qantas Airways Limited, an Queensland-based group of companies, will be examined. The research will, then, help to provide recommendations on how the company can maintain the commitment of employees and implement HR planning. The major part of profits comes from Qantas’ airline brands – Qantas and Jetstar, which have 252 aircrafts that carry over 40,000 passengers a year. Qantas Airways works both domestically and internationally, and is planning to expand its baseness and strengthen its positions in Asian market. In addition, the company already works in Australia and Papua New Guinea, Japan, North Asia, UK, Europe, the Middle East and Africa, Amer icas, New Zealand and the Pacific, and South East Asia. (Fact File 2010, 38). Being one of the largest Australian employers, the company has 32,500 employees. Most of them are based in Australia (Fact File 2010, 44). However, foreign divisions of the company are continuously growing. For that reason managing HR is more complex for the company – foreign employees even have different, lower than in Australia, pay rates. So effective management of productivity, workforce planning and budgets is one of the company’s priorities. This task has become even more important as the company has been affected by a number of strategic contingencies. Strategic contingencies affecting Qantas Recently Alan Joyce, Qantas’s CEO, has announced that the company is going for restructuring and tough reforms (The Australian. 2011). This strategic solution came up as a result of a number of strategic contingencies that affect the company. In particular, the decision is based on the foll owing facts: The Civil Aviation Safety Authority of